Teacher agency under structural constraints in rural multigrade schools

Evidence from Balochistan, Pakistan

Authors

  • Wazir Ali Faculty of Teacher Training and Education, Sebelas Maret University, Indonesia https://orcid.org/0009-0004-7198-0066
  • Joko Nurkamto Faculty of Teacher Training and Education, Sebelas Maret University, Surakarta, Indonesia
  • Gunarhadi Gunarhadi Faculty of Teacher Training and Education, Universitas Sebelas Maret, Indonesia.
  • Mi Yung Hong Korea National University of Education (KNUE), Korea.
  • NiamatUllah Baloch  Lasbela University of Agriculture Water and Marine Sciences, Uthal Pakistan
  • Fadzilah Abd Rahman  Sunway University Malaysia https://orcid.org/0009-0000-2298-8484

Keywords:

Rural education, Multigrade schools, Teacher agency, Social justice, Balochistan, Pakistan

Abstract

Single-teacher multigrade schools in rural Balochistan, Pakistan operate under chronic structural constraints, yet how teachers sustain learning and what justice-relevant work their practice performs remains underexplored. This convergent mixed-methods study combined a survey of 100 teachers with five semi-structured interviews, interpreted through Fraser’s redistribution-recognition-representation framework and an ecological conception of teacher agency. Barriers were evident across domains, while adaptive practices were frequently reported. Regression results indicated that adaptive practice was most robustly associated with infrastructure/environmental adversity and administrative burden. Interview evidence shows these adaptations as compensatory justice work: they redistribute learning opportunities, recognise learners’ linguistic repertoires, and create informal channels of participation where formal support is weak. Teacher adaptation, however, is not a substitute for systemic reform. Policy priorities include minimum infrastructure standards, protection of teaching time, multigrade-specific preparation, and participatory governance that supports teacher well-being and locally responsive practice.

Author Biographies

Wazir Ali, Faculty of Teacher Training and Education, Sebelas Maret University, Indonesia

Wazir Ali is a doctoral researcher at the Faculty of Teacher Training and Education, Sebelas Maret University, Indonesia. His research interests focus on education policy, teacher education, digital learning, and social issues in Pakistan and Indonesia. He has published widely and actively participates in international conferences and academic collaborations.

 Scopus ID: 59721525100

Joko Nurkamto, Faculty of Teacher Training and Education, Sebelas Maret University, Surakarta, Indonesia

Professor Joko Nurkamto is a senior faculty member at Sebelas Maret University specializing in English language education, teacher development, and curriculum innovation. His extensive research contributions, international collaborations, and leadership roles have significantly advanced language education scholarship in Indonesia. He actively mentors’ postgraduate students and supports educational quality enhancement initiatives.

Scopus ID: 56436592800

Gunarhadi Gunarhadi , Faculty of Teacher Training and Education, Universitas Sebelas Maret, Indonesia.

Professor Gunarhadi is an expert in special education at Sebelas Maret University. His research centers on inclusive education, learning disabilities, and pedagogical interventions to support diverse learners. He has authored numerous publications, led national education projects, and contributed extensively to improving inclusive teaching practices across Indonesian schools.

Scopus ID: 56468046000

Mi Yung Hong, Korea National University of Education (KNUE), Korea.

Dr. Mi Yung Hong is a Specially Appointed Professor at the Korea National University of Education (KNUE), Korea. She holds a Ph.D. in Educational Administration from Ewha Womans University and an M.A. in Education Policy & Society from King’s College London. Her research focuses on educational policy and teacher education, particularly teacher policy, school innovation/governance, and AI-integrated instructional design. In Korea, she contributed to drafting the Notification on Student Life Guidance by Teachers, participated in projects of the Presidential Commission on National Integration, and supported Glocal University innovation initiatives.   

Scopus ID is 59307940100

 

NiamatUllah Baloch , Lasbela University of Agriculture Water and Marine Sciences, Uthal Pakistan

NiamatUllah Baloch Assistant Professor Department of Educational Research and Development, Faculty of Education, Lasbela University of Agriculture Water and Marine Sciences, Uthal Pakistan

Fadzilah Abd Rahman , Sunway University Malaysia

Assoc. Professor Dr. Fadzilah Abd Rahman holds a Master of Science in Pedagogy from Universiti Putra Malaysia (UPM) and a Doctor of Philosophy in Teacher Education from the University of Sheffield, United Kingdom, with specialisation in Pedagogy, Assessment, and Evaluation. Her research focuses on instructional strategies and educational assessment, with expertise in pedagogical content knowledge, language assessment, productive pedagogies, and educational technology integration. She is currently an Associate Professor and Programme Leader for the Doctor of Education at Sunway University.

Scopus No: 33067504400

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Published

09-05-2026

How to Cite

Ali, W., Nurkamto, J., Gunarhadi , G., Hong, M. Y., Baloch , N., & Abd Rahman , F. (2026). Teacher agency under structural constraints in rural multigrade schools: Evidence from Balochistan, Pakistan. Australian and International Journal of Rural Education, 1–22. Retrieved from https://www.journal.spera.asn.au/index.php/AIJRE/article/view/879

Issue

Online First

Section

JOURNAL PAPERS

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Copyright (c) 2025 Wazir Ali, Joko Nurkamto, Gunarhadi Gunarhadi , Mi Yung Hong, NiamatUllah Baloch , Fadzilah Abd Rahman 

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